التدهور البيئي في الوطن العربي: التحدِّي لاستدامة الحياة(*) منقول عن: مركز دراسات الوحدة العربية

http://www.konnashe.com/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%91/

المصادر:

(*) نُشرت هذه الدراسة في مجلة المستقبل العربي العدد 419 في كانون الثاني/ يناير 2014.

(**)مي جردي: أستاذة ورئيسة قسم الصحة البيئية، كلية العلوم الصحية الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت.

(***) ريم فياض: مديرة مشروع، قسم السياسات والاستراتيجيات، المجلس التنفيذي لحكومة دبي.

(****) عباس الزين: أستاذ مساعد، كلية الهندسة المدنية، جامعة سيدني – أستراليا.

[1] G. Bruntland, ed., Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).

[2] United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, <http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html>.

[3] O. Brown and A. Crawford, Rising Temperatures, Rising Tensions: Climate Change and the Risk of Violent Conflict in the Middle East (Manitoba, Canada: International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2009).

[4] E. Smeets and R. Weterings, Environmental Indicators: Typology and Overview, Technical Report; no. 25 (Copenhagen, Denmark: European Environment Agency, 1999).

[5] D. Niemeijer and R. S. De Groot, «A Conceptual Framework for Selecting Environmental Indicator Sets,» Ecologic Indicators, vol. 8 (2008), pp. 14-25.

[6] M. El Batran, «Urbanization,» in: M. K. Tolba and N. Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, Report of the Arab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED) (Beirut: AFED, 2008), pp. 31-45.

[7] M. El Araby, «Urban Growth and Environmental Degradation: The Case of Cairo, Egypt,» Cities, vol. 19, no. 6 (2002), pp. 389-400.

[8] M. A. Khalifa, «Redefining Slums in Egypt: Unplanned Versus Unsafe Areas,» Habitat International, vol. 35, no. 1 (2010), pp. 40-49.

[9] M. K. Tolba, «Integrating Environment in Development Planning,» in: Tolba and Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, pp. 13-30.

[10] T. T. Nielsen and H. K. Adriansen, «Government Policies and Land Degradation in the Middle East,» Land Degradation and Development, vol. 16 (2005), pp. 151-161, and M. K. Tolba and N. Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Climate Change: Impact of Climate Change on Arab Countries, Report of the Arab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED) (Beirut: AFED, 2009).

[11] H. Partow, «Environmental Impact of Wars and Conflicts,» in: Tolba and Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, pp. 159-171.

[12] Tolba and Saab, Ibid., and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being (Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP, 2010).

[13]  UNEP, Ibid.

[14] J. A. Mubarak, «Middle East and North Africa: Development Policy in View of a Narrow Agricultural Natural Resource,» World Development, vol. 26, no. 5 (1998), pp. 877-895.

[15] S. Al Salem, «Overview of the Water and Wastewater Reuse Crises in the Arab World,» (2005), <http://www2.mre.gov.br/aspa/semiarido/data/saqer_al_salem.htm>.

[16] UNEP, Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being.

[17] M. Al-Mumtaz, «Water Desalination in the Arabian Gulf Region,» in: M. F. A. Goosen and W. H. Shayya, eds., Water Management, Purification and Conservation in Arid Climates, Volume 2: Water Purification (Pennsylvania: Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., 2000), pp. 245-265.

[18] «Arab Countries Regional Report, Bridging the Water Divide between the Arab States and Their Neighboring Countries,» Arab Water Council (AWC), (2009), <http://portal.worldwaterforum5.org/wwf5/en-us/worldregions/MENA%20Arab%20region/Consultation %20Library/MENA-Arab%20Regional%20Report.pdf>.

[19] UNEP, Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being.

[20] I. H. M. El Bagouri, «Interaction of Climate Change and Land Degradation: The Experience in the Arab Region,» United Nations Chronicle, vol. 44, no. 2 (2007), pp. 50-53.

[21]  UNEP, Ibid.

[22] A. A. Abahussain [et al.], «Desertification in the Arab Region: Analysis of Current Status and Trends,» Journal of Arid Environment, vol. 51, no. 4 (2002), pp. 521-545.

[23] «Sustainable Development of Land Resources, Agriculture and Rural Areas of the Arab Region,» Draft Report Presented at the Ninth Session of the Joint Committee on Environment and Development in the Arab Region (JCEDAR), 4-6 November 2007.

[24] UNEP, Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being.

[25] S. Diaz [et al.], «Biodiversity Loss Threatens Human Wellbeing,» PLoS Biology, vol. 4, no. 8 (2006), pp. 1300-1305.

[26] M. El Raey, «Air Quality and Atmospheric Pollution in the Arab Region», Report of the Joint Arab Secretariat of the Arab States and the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for West Asia and the United Nations Environmental Program for West Asia, (2006), and F. Shaaban, «Air Quality,» in: Tolba and Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, pp. 45-60.

[27]  El Raey, Ibid.

[28] «Report of the Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for Environment» League of Arab States (LAS) (2009), <http://www.preventionweb.net/files/10868_AbdulAzizAlSaud1.pdf>.

[29] N. Abou-Elseoud, «Waste Management,» in: Tolba and Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, pp. 111-126.

[30] El Raey, Air Quality and Atmospheric Pollution in the Arab Region, and Shaaban and M. K. El-Sayyed, «Marine Environment,» in: M. K. Tolba and N. Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, pp. 75-85.

[31] D. Reiche, «Energy Policies of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) Countries – Possibilities and Limitations of Ecological Modernization in Rentier States,» Energy Policy, vol. 38, no. 5 (2010), pp. 2395-2403.

[32] Tolba and Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Future Challenges, and UNEP, Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being.

[33] M. A. Hussein, «Cost of Environmental Deterioration: An Analysis in the Middle East and North Africa,» Management of Environmental Quality, vol. 19, no. 3 (2008), pp. 305-317.

[34] World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Health and Environment: Managing the Linkages for Sustainable Development, Synthesis Report of the WHO/UNEP Health and Environment Linkages Initiative (HELI) (Geneva, Switzerland: WHO and UNEP, 2008).

[35] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Development Challenges for the Arab Region: A Human Development Approach (New York: UNDP, 2009).

[36] H. Abouzaid, «Health and the Environment with Focus on the Eastern Mediterranean Region,» Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, vol. 14 (Suppl.) (2008), pp. 32-142.

[37] A. Prüss-Üstün and C. Corvalán, «Preventing Disease through Healthy Environment: Towards an Estimate of the Environmental Burden of Disease» WHO (2006), <http://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/preventingdiseasebegin.pdf>.

[38] I. Nuwayhid, R. Youssef, and R. R. Habib, «Human Health,» in: Tolba and Saab, eds., Arab Environment: Climate Change: Impact of Climate Change on Arab Countries, pp. 88-98.

[39]  UNDP, Development Challenges for the Arab Region: A Human Development Approach.

[40] H. Khordagui, «Sustainable Development in the Arab Region: From Concepts to Implementation,» Paper Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on National Sustainable Development Strategies and Indicators for Sustainable Development in the Arab Region, Cairo, 12-14 December 2004; Tolba and Saab, eds., Ibid., and UNEP, Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being.

[41]  UNEP, Ibid.

[42] M. Jurdi, M. Abed Al-Razzzak and S. Basma, «The Introduction of Water Resources Management in Western Asia Region,» Water Policy, vol. 5, no. 3 (2003), pp. 253-268.

[43] WHO and UNEP, Health and Environment: Managing the Linkages for Sustainable Development, Synthesis Report of the WHO/UNEP Health and Environment Linkages Initiative (HELI), pp. 50-57.

[44] «The Arab Ministerial Declaration on Climate Change» Council of Arab Ministers Responsible for the Environment (CAMRE) (2007), <http://www.docstoc.com/docs/19648772/The-Arab-Ministerial-Declaration-on-Climate-Change>.

[45]  UNDP, Development Challenges for the Arab Region: A Human Development Approach.

[46]  CAMRE, Ibid.

[47] United Nations (UN), Changing Unsustainable Patterns of Consumption and Production: Human Settlement and Water (New York: UN Division for Sustainable Development, 2005).

[48] W. S. Fahmi and K. Sutton, «Cairo’s Zabaleen Garbage Recyclers: Multinationals’ Takeover and State Relocation Plans,» Habitat International, vol. 30 (2006), pp. 809-837.

[49] UNEP, Environment Outlook for the Arab Region: Environment for Development and Human Well-being.

[50] للمراجعة، انظر: C. Böhringer, and P. Jochem, «Measuring the Immeasurable: A Survey of Sustainability Indices,» Ecological Economics (2007), vol. 63 (2007), pp. 1-8.

[51] انظر على سبيل المثال: S. Morse and E. D. G. Fraser, «Making «Dirty’ Nations Look Clean: The Nation State and the Problem of Selecting and Weighting Indices as Tools for Measuring Progress towards Sustainability,» Geoforum, vol. 36 (2005), pp. 625-640.

[52] J. Griffiths, «Mini-symposium: Health and Environmental Sustainability: The Convergence of Public Health and Sustainable Development,» Public Health, vol. 120, no. 7 (2006),  pp. 581-584, and WHO and UNEP, Health and Environment: Managing the Linkages for Sustainable Development, Synthesis Report of the WHO/UNEP Health and Environment Linkages Initiative (HELI).

[53]  Nuwayhid, Youssef, and Habib, «Human Health».

[54] A. Nichols [et al.], «Health, Climate Change and Sustainability: A Systematic Review and Thematic Analysis of the Literature,» Environmental Health Insights, vol. 3 (2009), pp. 63-88.